EL DESARROLLO DEL CAMPO DE LA SOCIOLOGÍA CLÍNICA
Enero Marie Fritz
This paper defines clinical sociology and summarizes the history and development of the field. The overall contributions of clinical sociologists are outlined and discussed the prospects of the field.
1. Definition of clinical sociology
clinical sociologists in many countries are writing about a range of important academic and practical issues (eg, Aubert and Gaulejac (l99l) in France, Tosi (1991) in Italy; Clark Fritz and Ricker (l990) and groom (l990) in the United States; Loicq (1992) in Belgium Rigas (l99l) in Greece and Teixeira (1991) in Brazil). One of his interests has been the development of medical sociology - its history, theories and methods.
In the United States, for example, volumes on the field began to appear at the end of the 70 (eg, Straus, 1979; Glassner and Freedman, 1979, Fritz 1985, Fritz and Clark , 1989; Rebach and Bruhn, 199l and Straus, 1993) and clinical review sociology, a journal, began publication in 1982. Clinical sociology in France was also discussed (eg, van Bockstaele, van Bockstaele, Barrot and Magny, 1963; Gaulejac, 1986; Enríquez, 1992), the Netherlands (eg, Ramondt, 1991, van de Vall, 1991) and by sociologists Francophones in Canada (eg, Sevigny, 1977; Houle, 1987) . Two books in medical sociology are currently under development in Greece.
In the U.S. the word "clinics" and "sociology" were first linked in print in 1930. Milton C. Winternitz (1930th, b), a physician and dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Yale University, wrote on his offer to establish a department of clinical sociology. That same year, Abraham Flexner (1930), clinical supply mentioned in the sociology of Winternitz in universities: American, English, German.
The first published discussion of clinical sociology sociologist appeared in l93l. That was the year Louis that sociology "clinic" to Wirth (1931a) was in the American Journal of Sociology as Wirth (193lb), in a brochure of the race, clinical sociology identified as one of " main divisions of sociology. "
A discussion of approach "clinical" sociologists and "clinical sociology" has appeared in American publications at least regularly during the past 60 years (Fritz, 1989b, 1991). The definition usually involved several threads - analysis, research and intervention. American literature during the last ten years, been particularly acute intervention.
Clinical sociology is defined here as a multidisciplinary field, humanistic determine and reduce problems with analysis and intervention. The clinical analysis is the critical assessment of beliefs, policies and / or practices with an eye toward improving the situation. The intervention, the creation of new systems and changing existing systems, is based on the analysis below (Fritz, 1991a).
clinical sociologists have specialty areas - such as ethnic relations and organizational analysis - and work in many capacities. They are, for example, community organizers, sociotherapists, interventionist conflict, social policy executors and administrators. Many sociologists combine their clinical intervention work with full time education or college hours.
clinical sociologists use range of research methods and are very diverse in terms of their theoretical approaches. The most frequently undertake case analysis skills but use qualitative and quantitative research for assessment and evaluation. Clinical sociologists are eclectic in their use of theory in bringing together the approaches of different disciplines they have studied. Usually a sociological approach - eg, systems theory, symbolic interaction, theory of conflict - is central to the work of medical and combined with one or more other approaches. A combination of approaches (eg, conflict theory and behaviorism) can be determined to be most useful to analyze a problem or intervention in a system.
The role of clinical sociologist can be in one or more levels of focus of the inter-social individual. Although the clinical sociologist specializing in one or two levels of intervention, the translation of theory, concepts and social methods into practice takes a special kind of skill. The clinical sociologist must not only be able to recognize the various levels of intervention, but must move between the levels for analysis and intervention (Freedman, 1984).
2. The history of clinical sociology
field origins date back at least five centuries - to work in North Africa-ad-Din Wali-Hadrami Arab historian ibn Khaldun and Mohamed Abu Zaid ibn Abdalrahman of statesperson, better known as Ibn Khaldun (1331-1406). He founded "the science of human social organization," the basis for what is now called sociology (Baali, 1988: XI, 107). In his Muqaddimah , Ibn Khaldun provided numerous clinical observations based on their professional experiences, which included carrying the seal, the Secretary of State, ambassador, negotiator and judge. In the last role saw him as a reformer who performed with "strict honesty and great integrity" (Baali, 1988:1 - 3; Fritz, 1989b: 73).
Ibn Khaldun was the first to use a scientific approach to the study of social life along with the intervention. But he and many individuals now identified as early sociologists, social scientists did not call during periods in which he lived. The identification of the earliest clinical sociologists is also difficult because many of them did not use the label for themselves. However, a review of the work of scientists and doctors early allows us to identify precursors and clinicians.
Among those in Europe that would be included at least as precursors of contemporary medical sociology were the classic sociologists Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx. Comte believed that the scientific study of societies provide the basis for social action. Durkheim and Marx provided a clinical perspective, a model or framework for the analysis of social dilemmas (Fritz, 1989b: 73). Among those whose work has directly identified because clinical sociology is Beatrice Webb (1858-1943). Webb was active in the Fabian Society and helped establish the London School of economics. She was identified with sociology and social research and had a strong influence on British social policy (Fritz, 1991c: 17).
early American sociologists were doctors and teachers, and some - such as Frank Blackmar (Fritz, 1990c) in Kansas and WEB Du Bois (Fritz, 1990a) in Georgia - combined these roles. While sociology was taught at first in late 1800 in the United States, the earliest references to the label "clinical sociology" is in the last 20's and 30. During those years had clinical sociologists (eg, Louis Wirth, Harvey Zorbaugh, Leonard Cottrell) who ran or worked in clinics for children and courses for teachers (eg, a citizen of Ernesto, Louis Wirth, Harvey Zorbaugh) who taught was entitled to "clinical sociology" (Fritz, 1991a).
During the past sixty years there has always been some discussion of clinical sociology in the United States, but it was not until the l970s that the field last won back some attention from the public and sociologists . The growth of sociology clinic has been due in large part to the efforts of the practice Sociological Association (established in l978 as the clinical association of sociology). The directors of the organization began publishing a schedule full in the place and established an innovative process, capacity-based certification.
In the interest of the 60's and 70's in medical sociology also turned in several other countries, particularly in France and Canada. Among the significant contributors in France was Jacques van Bockstaele, Maria van Bockstaele, maximum and Eugene pages Quebec Enriquez and one would have to see the pioneering work of Robert Sevigny and his colleagues.
3. The utility of clinical sociology
Each country - depending on their level of economic development, their priorities and their willingness to see and meet their needs - identify, analyze and take steps to alleviate social problems. Clinical sociologists, like those in many fields, can and are helping to solve or at least reduce the problems in their own countries and in multinational settings. At this point it might be helpful to focus on the kinds of contributions we might expect clinical sociologists.
main contributions differ depending on a number of factors such as level of medical training (BA, MA or Ph.D.), length and type of experience and areas of interest. Many medical experts in the United States requests the certification. It may be that we have the following contributions, usually at doctoral-level medical certificates (Fritz, l992c):
theoretical analysis. clinical sociologist has had extensive training in theory. The result is a working knowledge of a range of theories in two or more disciplines that affect them or their area of \u200b\u200bspecialization. Await clinical sociologist:
- has the ability to translate the theory to practical use
- periodically reflect on her or his own theoretical approach and effects potential of this approach on the work undertaken
- provide the theoretical perspective, when the situation allows, for clients, colleagues, employers and interested community members
social systems perspective. Training a sociologist emphasizes understanding (l) the social system - a configuration of positions, roles and norms - as a dynamic force and (2) the effects of membership in overlapping systems. It is hoped that clinical sociologists are knowledgeable about systems, moving between theory and practice in working with systems and assist individuals and groups in determining and possibly changing systems.
levels of analysis. Is expected to focus on a clinical sociologist level of analysis (eg, individual, small group, organization, local community, world) to undertake an intervention project. But the doctor must also have the ability not only to recognize the various levels but moving between them for analysis and intervention.
methodological sophistication. A sociologist receives extensive training in research methods. It is hoped that clinical sociologists know the comparative strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative methods in their practice settings.
expected to be a sociologist clinician may also recommend appropriate methods (eg, participatory research, action research, focus groups), considering the objectives of the parties involved, the ethical considerations and resources available.
intervention skills. A clinical sociologist and cross-training will have substantial experience of the intervention on her or his area of \u200b\u200bspecialty. The licensed doctor get beyond simply specify some of the difficulties in a situation. The doctor will put a process in place that allow for analysis of situations and developing ways alternatives to deal with situations. The clinical sociologist, where possible, initiate or facilitate interventions. In any intervention, it was expected that the clinical sociologist is bound by a code of ethics and identify and address ethical issues that may arise.
specialized knowledge base. Each clinical sociologist has a frame of reference that emphasizes social factors (eg, conditions, ethnicity, gender, socio-economic) and at least one or two areas of special ability - eg, health promotion, criminology, counseling , community organization or political social. It is expected that a clinical sociologist working in the areas where he or she has particular expertise, and advise stakeholders before undertaking the work that goes beyond the special areas of knowledge or involvement.
social problem identification. clinical sociologist - because of its critical approach, problem-solving perspective and multidisciplinary education - are expected to attend the early identification of social problems and help put a human process in place that reduce or solve problems.
Sociologists clinical certainly are not the only ones who could do these kinds of contributions. It is true, however, that various disciplines generally emphasize one or more areas on the list and give minimal coverage to any other. Sociology programs, for example, stress often explanatory factors (eg, decisions, economic or political systems of stratification), social theory and research methods. Often do not provide supervised training in the intervention and so many clinical sociologists have had to receive this training outside their major program.
4. The market situation for clinical sociology
Clinical sociology is a diverse field. Intervene or analyze intervention projects at many levels (eg, individual, interpersonal, neighborhood, organization, intersocietal). We have a complex situation in the labor market and so it is difficult to be very specific about the demand for our work. Well, we have no information about our international job market, trust only the information here in the United States in hopes that there are some general points can be made from this one case.
U.S. department of labor, in its Occupational Outlook handbook , clinical sociology has identified as a growth area within sociology in the United States (Clark and Fritz, 1991). Within the field of clinical sociology I think our current growth areas are prevention projects that encourage or discourage health crime or criminal behavior; intervention conflict management incase the delivery of a range of social and economic study market (including major groups); renovation / development of democracy and economic development / revitalization of communities.
Clinical sociologists working as part of multidisciplinary teams in major research institutions have been very successful in receiving Federal funds particularly in mental health, alcohol and drugs, aging and education. The situation for the financing of projects of social sciences at the federal level is much affected by which party is in power and purpose in which we organize a funding agency. For example, the National Science Foundation (NSF) now have a direction for research and social science it must ensure at least a presence guaranteed to work in science social.
The consortium of associations of the social sciences (Cossa) was established about ten years ago in the United States. It helped to see that federal funding for social science research has not disappeared during periods of economic or political difficulty. This is particularly important when one realizes that the health institutes each institute usually happens only 3-4% of their budget for research in social science research. (Some institutions - eg, aging and child health - spend a higher percentage of its budget to social research and behavior.) Cossa like to think it was helpful to see that the NSF set a direction of social science research, in encouraging the U.S. Congress to suggest that each report from the Institute of Health funding for projects of social sciences and in obtaining funding for a health survey of the social sciences in the institute responsible for research on aging (Auerbach, 1992).
None of federal funding sources are equally interested in all theoretical perspectives, all research subjects, all methodologies or all classes of applicants (eg, research or an unaffiliated college or university that has a national reputation for research). This means that federal funding is only a possibility of a limited number of U.S. clinical sociologists.
Many sociologists clinicians receive funds for their projects from state governments and foundations. In most cases funding can be obtained because of their expertise on the subject not because they are sociologists. Are more successful when the review panels are not connected with any particular discipline and when working as part of a team multidisciplinary. Even saying this, however, attention still needs to be given to the expectations of the funding source. For example, the snuff-control projects in California that is funded by the California Department of medical services expected to call certain staff members of the "health educators" rather than clinical sociologists, sociologists and psychologists.
Some clinical sociologists are interested in large projects that do not easily attract funding. These may be some, for example, that are too hot in a political or not fall within current funding priorities.
Government Units employ clinical sociologists (on a full time or part time) business and to conduct research or to undertake intervention research around issues of marketing. Some of these individuals work advisory operations, other divisions manage market research or work as part of the research teams of the intervention. It appears that employment in larger advisory groups seems to be constant as the larger companies now prefer to give assignments to outside groups and keep your full-time employment "lean" during these difficult economic times. Unless a business has a social scientist to make the rent, the fact that an aspirant sociologist is not considered likely as a particular advantage. During the hiring process many sociologists are defined only as "market researchers" or "trainers major group" rather than as sociologists.
training opportunities for graduate students in the intervention research and intervention are largely limited in the United States. I visited Recently a county department of mental health where there were many state employees whose jobs were to supervise graduate students in social work, counseling or administration. No such arrangement is easily possible for graduate students connected with other disciplines (including sociology). This was because state law does not mandate participation by assigned, organizations and state licensing boards had not opened the doors for participation and social scientists have not seen as eligible for third-party payments. The movement on the part of some large professional organizations to consider that only students are eligible for jobs in certain areas may not affect the current use of social scientists but will affect the number of students of sociology that we attract and the viability of our graduate programs.
5. Conclusion
Clinical sociology is a multidisciplinary field, humanist who identifies and reduces problems with critical analysis and intervention. Clinical sociologists at least 25 countries are providing valuable research expertise and intervention to individuals, organizations, local communities, to national governments and international bodies. His work deals with the conditions that are basic to our perceived problems and focus our efforts on analysis, prevention and early intervention.
The vitality of the field of clinical sociology indicates at least three ways:
- the rapidly growing body of literature
- the number of national and international conferences being held that focus on clinical sociologists field or property
- the number of professionals in many fields (eg, psychology, social work, business) who are joining our organizations and conferences because they value clinical sociological perspectives.
growth field of clinical sociology can provide a number of ways. An analysis of the American experience indicates that at least three areas need to be addressed.
First, policy makers and the public need to see the value of our work on statements policy, magazine articles and popular books. This means that those who do need intervention taking the time to write about their work for a popular audience and the need to write clearly identified as clinical sociologists.
Second, we need to see that the "clinical sociology" is a category of personal listings and included in funding priorities. (The visibility of sociology tied clinical course, visibility of the general field of sociology. We need to see more cases, as in Spain, where a downtown building in Madrid is clearly labeled as the center of sociological research, where an employee, for example at one of the Mondragon cooperatives, has a business card that clearly label it as a sociologist of staff.)
Third, we need to establish clinical programs in sociology (intervention and intervention research) within academic settings (Fritz and Clark, 1992). Sociologists and others who are interested in receiving clinical training in sociology should be able to do so within a variety of programs in sociology.
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